Consider the following when preparing questions or problems for your exam:

• Present a single clearly-defined problem that is based on a significant concept rather than on trivial or esoteric ideas.
• Determine an appropriate difficulty level for students.
• Use simple, precise, and unambiguous wording.
• Exclude extraneous or irrelevant information.
• Refrain from providing unnecessary clues to the correct answer. For example, test-wise students have learned that the correct answer generally
  • is longer.
  • is qualified or is more general.
  • uses familiar phraseology.
  • is a grammatically perfect extension of the question itself.
  • is one of two similar statements.
  • is one of two opposite statements.
• Test-wise students have also learned that incorrect answers often
  • appear as the first or last option.
  • are logical extremes.
  • contain language or technical terms not expected.
  • contain extreme words like “nonsense” or “foolhardy.”
  • contain flippant remarks.
  • contain completely unreasonable statements.
• Eliminate any systematic pattern for answers that would allow students to guess answers correctly.
• Guard against cultural, racial, ethnic, and sexual bias. Items should not require presupposed knowledge which favors one group over another. For example, a test item that refers to a “fly ball” assumes knowledge of baseball and may favor males.
• Avoid test items that assume stereotyped behavior (such as portraying minorities in a subservient role).
• Use answers from open-ended questions given to previous exams to provide realistic distracters.

Before you start

Pick your format. Don’t use multiple-choice questions when other question formats are more appropriate. Multiple-choice has limited effectiveness in assessing skills like problem-solving and creativity.

Creating the question stem

Be Clear. The stem of the question should present a clear and complete problem (e.g., Who wrote the Declaration of Independence?)

Don’t Hint. The questions should not clue the students to the correct answer.

• The stem of the question should agree grammatically with each choice.
• The options should be similar in length and amount of detail.
• All options should seem plausible to the uninformed.

State the authority. If the question is controversial, an authority or theory should be referred to as support (e.g., According to most German historians, which of the following caused World War II?)

Avoid negative words. It is generally suggested that negative words be avoided in the question stem. If included, any negative word should be capitalized and/or underlined, and bolded (e.g., Which of the following is NOT an item of mountain climbing gear?)

Use questions. The stem of a question should generally be written as a question, not as an incomplete sentence.

• Less Effective: The capital of California is …
• More Effective: Which of the following cities is the capital of California?

Emphasize higher-level thinking (see Blooms’s Revised Taxonomy). 

Creating the options

Avoid all of the above/none of the above. The option “all of the above” should not be used, as it increases the chance of students correctly guessing the right answer. It is also better to have three or more good options rather than to use “none of the above” as a choice. Questions that use “all of the above” and “none of the above” as options can be replaced with questions that ask students to pick all of the choices which may be correct.

Use just one idea. Each option should concisely state only one idea.

Keep it similar. All options should be as homogenous or similar as possible. 

Use only plausible distracters. Use answers given in previous open-ended exams to provide realistic distracters. 

Avoid extremes such as never, always, and only. 

Complex formats. Avoid complex multiple-choice formats (e.g., both A and B, both B and C, etc.). 

Use the ABC’s. Order the options to each question alphabetically.

Use visual separation. List all options vertically, not horizontally. 

Balance. Balance the placement of the correct answer. Correct answers tend to be the second or third option. Don’t forget to use all the options equally.

For more on multiple choice, see Fourteen Rules to Writing Multiple Choice Questions and Writing Distracters.

Also see these Multiple Choice Practice Exercises in PDF format.

“The limitations of the true-false item are so serious that it seems wise to use this item type only when other items are inappropriate for measuring the desired learning outcomes.”--N.E. Gronlund

There are many serious limitations associated with true-false questions. Consequently, many experts recommend that they not be used. Nevertheless, there may be instances when you might want to use them. Below are guidelines that, if followed, should help you minimize many problems associated with these items.

• One idea. A question should present only one idea, which can be judged as true or false (e.g., the following question is inadequate because it represents numerous ideas to be judged: Cary Hooper was the original star of Peyton Place and went on to have his own T.V. show).
   
• Major points. The truth of a question should not be based on a minor point in the question. In other words, students should never be tricked.
   
• Controversial questions. Debatable questions should be connected to a source when they refer to an opinion or theory (e.g., According to most astrologers, tides have an effect on men’s moods).
   
• Be Positive. True-false questions should be stated in a positive way (e.g., Astronauts have the same duties as cosmonauts; rather than, Astronauts don’t have the same duties as cosmonauts). Since the latter example is false, students have to deal with a double negative, which should be avoided.
   
• Avoid multiple interpretations. Some adjectives are open to multiple interpretations and are often only clearly understood relative to something else. Thus, questions containing adjectives such as graceful, rich, and important should either
  1. Be stated as a comparison (e.g., Switzerland is richer in natural resources than Liechtenstein), or
  2. Elaborate the adjective in some detail (e.g., Switzerland has enough natural resources to sustain its population for 100 years).
      
• Blanket statements. Many superlatives such as all, never, and always should be avoided. But a few which can be easily measured may be used (e.g., The tallest buildings in the world are the twin Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia).

Also see these True/False Practice Exercises in PDF format.

Also see these Matching Practice Exercises in PDF format.

Make it clear. Word the item so that a clear, meaningful problem is presented.

Limit responses. Structure the question so that the range of acceptable responses is limited to a single correct answer or a narrow set of definite, clear-cut, and explicit answers.

Keep it short. The required response should consist of no more than a few sentences or a short list of items.

Directions. If the question calls for a student answer other than memorized facts, students should be told the nature of the required response or the criteria against which their answers will be judged (e.g., your answer must be accurate to at least two decimal places; or, your answer must include a reference to a major theory which supports your view).

Specify the units. When using computational problems, specify the units and degree of precision that should be used in expressing the answer.

Poor examples:

1. Brigham Young was a ___________________.
2. The full name of the man who invented the telegraph is

_________________  __  __  ____________.

Good examples:

1. Who was the principal author of the Declaration of Independence?   ______________________
2. What is the chemical formula for common table salt?  __________________________
3. Using the information in Table 1, determine the molecular weight of KClO₃. _________________

Things to remember when scoring short answer questions

• How COMPLETE must the answer be?
• How ACCURATE must the answer be?
• Must the Answer be CORRECTLY SPELLED?
• Will PARTIAL CREDIT be given?
   

Also see these Short Answer Practice Exercises and Completion Practice Exercises in PDF format.

“Essay questions are the least understood, the most poorly written, and the most subjectively graded of all test item types.” -- Dr. Richard Sudweeks

• Learning outcome. Before writing an essay question, clearly define the intended learning outcome to be assessed and delimit the scope of the task.

Source: “Preparing Effective Essay Questions: A Self-directed Workbook for Educators.” Used with permission.

• Pick appropriate format. Avoid using essay questions for intended learning outcomes that are better assessed with other kinds of assessment.
• Thinking process. Clearly state the thinking processes students are to use in writing their answers and require the students to use these thinking processes in a novel or previously un-encountered problem situation (e.g., compare, analyze, evaluate, etc.).
• Use specific course content. Focus essay questions on specific course content. Make it clear what content and subject matter students should use in answering the question. (Generally, it is better to require students to use more specific content then broad or general content.)

Source: “Preparing Effective Essay Questions: A Self-directed Workbook for Educators.” Used with permission.

• Present a reasonable task to students.
• Directions. Specify the relative point value and the approximate time limit in clear directions.
• Criteria. In the essay question, state the criteria that will be used to grade student responses.
• All or nothing. Require students to answer all essay questions. Do not allow them to choose any essay to answer.

• Improve the essay questions through preview and review:
  • Predict student responses.
  • Write a model answer.
  • Ask a knowledgeable colleague to critically review the essay question, the model answer, and the intended learning outcome for alignment.
  • Review student responses to the essay question.
     

Reference:
Christian M. Reiner, Timothy W. Bothell, & Richard R. Sudweeks
Preparing Effective Essay Questions: A Self-directed Workbook for Educators
New Forums Press Inc. Stillwater, OK  2003

Also see these Essay Practice Exercises in PDF format.